Immunostimulation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) blood cells by parapoxvirus ovis and CpG motif-containing bacterial plasmid DNA upregulates innate immune gene expression.

The immune system of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is poorly studied, compared to that of livestock, rodents or humans. The innate immune response has become a focus of interest in relation to Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs). EEHVs cause a fatal hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) and are a significant threat to captive Asian elephant populations worldwide. Similar to other herpesvirus infections, nearly all animals become infected, but only some develop disease. As progression to EEHV-HD is often acute, a robust innate immune response is crucial to control EEHV infections. This is invariably true of the host in the first instance, but it can also potentially be modulated by intervention strategies. Here, two immunostimulant veterinary medicinal products, authorized for use in domestic species, were tested for their ability to induce innate anti-viral immune responses in Asian elephant blood cells. Sequence data were obtained for a range of previously unidentified Asian elephant immune genes, including C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), interferon stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) and myxovirus GTPase 1 (Mx1), and were employed in the design of species-specific qPCR assays. These assays were subsequently used in analyses to determine fold changes in gene expression over a period of 24 hours. This study demonstrates that both immunostimulant medications are capable of inducing significant innate anti-viral immune responses which suggests that both could be beneficial in controlling EEHV infections in Asian elephants.

Advances in the mechanism of inflammasomes activation in herpes virus infection.

Herpesviruses, prevalent DNA viruses with a double-stranded structure, establish enduring infections and play a part in various diseases. Despite their deployment of multiple tactics to evade the immune system, both localized and systemic inflammatory responses are triggered by the innate immune system's recognition of them. Recent progress has offered more profound understandings of the mechanisms behind the activation of the innate immune system by herpesviruses, specifically through inflammatory signaling. This process encompasses the initiation of an intracellular nucleoprotein complex, the inflammasome associated with inflammation.Following activation, proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1ß and IL-18 are released by the inflammasome, concurrently instigating a programmed pathway for cell death. Despite the structural resemblances between herpesviruses, the distinctive methods of inflammatory activation and the ensuing outcomes in diseases linked to the virus exhibit variations.The objective of this review is to emphasize both the similarities and differences in the mechanisms of inflammatory activation among herpesviruses, elucidating their significance in diseases resulting from these viral infections.Additionally, it identifies areas requiring further research to comprehensively grasp the impact of this crucial innate immune signaling pathway on the pathogenesis of these prevalent viruses.

DNA-PK and ATM drive phosphorylation signatures that antagonistically regulate cytokine responses to herpesvirus infection or DNA damage.

The DNA-dependent protein kinase, DNA-PK, is an essential regulator of DNA damage repair. DNA-PK-driven phosphorylation events and the activated DNA damage response (DDR) pathways are also components of antiviral intrinsic and innate immune responses. Yet, it is not clear whether and how the DNA-PK response differs between these two forms of nucleic acid stress-DNA damage and DNA virus infection. Here, we define DNA-PK substrates and the signature cellular phosphoproteome response to DNA damage or infection with the nuclear-replicating DNA herpesvirus, HSV-1. We establish that DNA-PK negatively regulates the ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) DDR kinase during viral infection. In turn, ATM blocks the binding of DNA-PK and the nuclear DNA sensor IFI16 to viral DNA, thereby inhibiting cytokine responses. However, following DNA damage, DNA-PK enhances ATM activity, which is required for IFN-ß expression. These findings demonstrate that the DDR autoregulates cytokine expression through the opposing modulation of DDR kinases.

Decreased risk of non-influenza respiratory infection after influenza B virus infection in children.

Previous studies suggest that influenza virus infection may provide temporary non-specific immunity and hence lower the risk of non-influenza respiratory virus infection. In a randomized controlled trial of influenza vaccination, 1 330 children were followed-up in 2009-2011. Respiratory swabs were collected when they reported acute respiratory illness and tested against influenza and other respiratory viruses. We used Poisson regression to compare the incidence of non-influenza respiratory virus infection before and after influenza virus infection. Based on 52 children with influenza B virus infection, the incidence rate ratio (IRR) of non-influenza respiratory virus infection after influenza virus infection was 0.47 (95% confidence interval: 0.27-0.82) compared with before infection. Simulation suggested that this IRR was 0.87 if the temporary protection did not exist. We identified a decreased risk of non-influenza respiratory virus infection after influenza B virus infection in children. Further investigation is needed to determine if this decreased risk could be attributed to temporary non-specific immunity acquired from influenza virus infection.

A meta-analysis for prevalence of infectious laryngotracheitis in chickens in mainland China in 1981-2022.

BACKGROUND: Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is a highly infectious upper respiratory tract disease of chickens caused by infectious laryngotracheitis virus or Gallid herpesvirus 1 (GaHV-1). ILT is an important respiratory disease of chickens and annually causes significant economic losses in the chicken industry. Although numerous relevant studies have been published, the overall prevalence of ILT infection among chicken in mainland China is still unknown, and associated risk factors need to be evaluated to establish preventive measures. RESULTS: The present study reviewed the literature on the prevalence of ILT in chickens in China as of December 20, 2022, retrieved from six databases-CNKI, Wanfang, VIP, PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect-were used to retrieve relevant studies published between January 1, 1981 and December 20, 2022. The literature quality of studies was assessed, and 20 studies with a total of 108,587 samples were included in the meta-analysis. Results of the meta-analysis showed that the overall prevalence of ILT was 10% (95% confidence interval: 8 -12%) through the random-effects model, which showed high heterogeneity, I2 = 99.4%. Further subgroup analyses showed that the prevalence of ILT decreased over time; furthermore, the prevalence in Northwest China was slightly lower than that in North China and South China, and the prevalence estimated using the diagnostic technique AGP was higher than that reported using other diagnostic techniques. CONCLUSIONS: ILT is prevalent to some extent in mainland China. Given that the ILT attenuated live vaccine has a certain level of virulence and the prevalence differences between regions, we recommend controlling breeding density, improving immunization programs and continuously monitoring viruses and to prevent ILT prevailing in mainland China.

Molecular characterization of equine herpes viruses type 1 and 4 among Arabian horse populations in Egypt during the period between 2021 and 2022.

Background: Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a major cause of abortion and respiratory disease. Equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4), on the other hand, is exclusively associated with respiratory disease in horse populations worldwide, particularly in Egypt and Arabian countries. Aim: This study aims to investigate the circulation of EHV-1 and EHV-4 in the Arabian horse population through molecular detection and genetic characterization of EHV-1 and/or EHV-4 that may threaten the stability of horse industry. Methods: A total of 80 samples including 50 nasal swabs, 10 vaginal swabs and 20 whole blood samples were collected from vaccinated and registered pure-bred Arabian adult horses from different studs in the governorates of northern Egypt (Cairo, Dakahlyia and Qalyubia) from 2021 to 2022. The collected samples were screened using consensus PCR for detection of EHVs using specific primers targeting DNA polymerase gene. The positive samples were subjected to conventional PCR for detection of EHV-1 and/or EHV-4using specific primers targeting glycoprotein (gB) gene. EHV-1 and EHV-4 amplicons were partially sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed using Sanger method. Results: Consensus PCR revealed that 48 out of 80 samples were positive for EHVs with percentage of 60%. Typing of the selected positive samples using conventional PCR showed that 29 out of 80 were positive for EHV-1 with percentage 36.25%, while 24 out of 80 samples were positive for EHV-4 with percentage 30%. Mixed infections with both viruses were detected in five samples. The amplified products were sequenced using Sanger method and submitted to GenBank under accession number OM362231MG-1 for EHV-1 strain and OM362232 MG-4 for EHV-4 strain. Sequence analysis and alignments of the amplified fragments of the EHV-1 and EHV-4 glycoprotein B (gB) gene to that of GenBank-derived reference strains revealed a high degree of similarity. According to the phylogenetic tree, the obtained sequences of EHV-1 and 4 in the current study showed homogeneity with local Egyptian and foreign EHV-1 and 4 strains and heterogeneity with EHV-2 and 5. Conclusion: The current investigation showed that molecular methods are appropriate assays for an efficient and accurate diagnosis of EHVs. Furthermore, it supports earlier research findings about the prevalence of EHV-1 and 4 in Arabian horse populations in Egypt.

Dual fluorescence reporter mice for Ccl3 transcription, translation, and intercellular communication.

Chemokines guide immune cells during their response against pathogens and tumors. Various techniques exist to determine chemokine production, but none to identify cells that directly sense chemokines in vivo. We have generated CCL3-EASER (ErAse, SEnd, Receive) mice that simultaneously report for Ccl3 transcription and translation, allow identifying Ccl3-sensing cells, and permit inducible deletion of Ccl3-producing cells. We infected these mice with murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV), where Ccl3 and NK cells are critical defense mediators. We found that NK cells transcribed Ccl3 already in homeostasis, but Ccl3 translation required type I interferon signaling in infected organs during early infection. NK cells were both the principal Ccl3 producers and sensors of Ccl3, indicating auto/paracrine communication that amplified NK cell response, and this was essential for the early defense against mCMV. CCL3-EASER mice represent the prototype of a new class of dual fluorescence reporter mice for analyzing cellular communication via chemokines, which may be applied also to other chemokines and disease models.

BIOLOGICAL VARIATION OF HEMATOLOGY PARAMETERS AND CLINICAL APPLICATION IN AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (LOXODONTA AFRICANA).

Detailed knowledge of biological variation can facilitate accurate interpretation of clinical pathology parameters. A recent biological variation study in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) found that hematology parameters had high individuality, which suggests that population-derived reference intervals may be an insensitive diagnostic tool. In elephant medicine, sensitive hematology-related diagnostics are crucial for clinical decision-making, particularly in elephants at risk for elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD). The objective of this study was to assess biological variation of hematology parameters in African elephants to determine whether population-derived reference intervals are a sensitive diagnostic tool for interpreting results and to provide a useful alternative. Eight healthy African elephants had blood collected under behavioral training every other week for 8 wk. Complete blood cell count (CBC) analysis was performed in duplicate to assess analytical variation. Previous methods were used to determine between-individual variation, within-individual variation, index of individuality, and reference change values (RCV). This study found that most hematology parameters displayed intermediate-to-high individuality, which suggests that alternatives to population-derived reference intervals are necessary to detect pathologic changes. To test the results of our biological variation data, a case of EEHV-HD was retrospectively evaluated. Individual normal values and calculated RCV detected a clinically significant monocytopenia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia associated with EEHV2 viremia. However, none of these parameters fell outside a population-derived reference interval. This study highlights the utility of biological variation in clinical decision-making and demonstrates that individual normal values and RCV may be important diagnostic tools for CBC interpretation in African elephants.

PCR testing for herpesviruses in aqueous humor samples from patients with and without clinical corneal endothelial graft rejection.

To compare prevalence of positive PCR tests for herpesviruses between patients with and without a history of clinical corneal endothelial allograft rejection (AGR). Retrospective cross-sectional study with two-group comparison. A total of 307 aqueous humor (AH) samples from 235 Patients and 244 eyes who underwent penetrating keratoplasty or Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty or had a diagnostic AH aspiration due to clinical AGR between 2019 and 2023 were tested for DNA of herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). PCR test results were compared between the two groups (with/without AGR). Another sub-analysis examined the results of patients without a history of herpetic keratitis. A total of 8% of eyes with clinical AGR (9/108) had a positive PCR result for one of the herpesviruses (HSV:3, CMV:3, EBV:2, VZV:1). All patients in the group without AGR had negative PCR results for all previous viruses (0/136). The difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001). The sub-analysis of eyes without a history of herpetic keratitis also revealed significantly more positive herpes PCR results (7/87) in eyes with AGR than in eyes without AGR (0/42, p = 0.005). Clinical AGR after keratoplasty shows a significant correlation to viral replication. Herpetic infection and AGR could occur simultaneously and act synergistically. Timely differentiation between active herpetic infection and/or AGR is pivotal for proper treatment and graft preservation.

Transcriptomic Responses to Koi Herpesvirus in Isolated Blood Leukocytes from Infected Common Carp.

Koi herpesvirus (KHV, CyHV-3) causes severe economic losses in carp farms. Its eradication is challenging due to the establishment of latency in blood leukocytes and other tissues. To understand the molecular mechanisms leading to KHV infection in leukocytes, common carp were bath-exposed to KHV at 17 °C. After confirming the presence of viral transcripts in blood leukocytes at ten days post infection, RNA-Seq was performed on peripheral blood leukocytes on the Illumina NovaSeq. KHV infection triggered a robust immune response mediated by pattern recognition receptors, mainly toll-like receptors (tlr2, tlr5, tlr7, and tlr13), urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor-like, galectin proteins, and lipid mediators such as leukotriene B4 receptor 1. Enriched pathways showed increased mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation and the activation of signalling pathways such as mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). KHV-infected leukocytes showed low production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutathione metabolism, high iron export and phagocytosis activity, and low autophagy. Macrophage polarization was deduced from the up-regulation of genes such as arginase non-hepatic 1-like, macrophage mannose receptor-1, crem, il-10, and il-13 receptors, while markers for cytotoxic T cells were observed to be down-regulated. Further work is required to characterise these leukocyte subsets and the molecular events leading to KHV latency in blood leukocytes.

The assessment of microbial infection in children with autism spectrum disorders and genetic folate cycle deficiency.

BACKGROUND: The results of disparate clinical studies indicate abnormally frequent cases of certain microorganisms in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, these data require clarification and systematization. The study aims to study the structure of the microbial profile in children with ASD and genetic folate cycle deficiency (GFCD) and consider differences in diagnostic approaches for identifying microorganisms of different types. METHODS: The study analyzed medical data from 240 children (187 boys and 63 girls) with GFCD aged 2 to 9 years. The children had clinical manifestations of ASD (the study group, SG). The control group (CG) included 53 clinically healthy children (37 boys and 16 girls) of the same age but without GFCD. Both groups of children were tested on active herpetic infections (HSV-1/2, VZV, EBV, CMV, HHV-6, HHV-7, HHV-8), ТТV, Streptococcus pyogenes, Candida albicans, Borrelia burgdorferi, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Yersinia enterocolitica, Toxoplasma gondii, congenital CMV neuroinfection and postnatal HSV-1/2 encephalitis. The testing used diagnostic methods specified in PubMed-indexed studies. RESULTS: In the SG, TTV was found in 196 children (82%), HHV-7 - in 172 (72%), HHV-6 - in 162 (68%), EBV - in 153 (64%), Streptococcus pyogenes - in 127 (53%), Candida albicans - in 116 (48%), Borrelia - in 107 (45%), Mycoplasma pneumoniae - in 94 (39%), Chlamydia pneumoniae - in 85 (35%), Yersinia entеrocolitica - in 71 (30%), Toxoplasma gondii - in 54 (23%), congenital CMV neuroinfection - in 26 (11%), and postnatal HSV-1/2 encephalitis - in 11 children (5% of cases) (p < p0.05; Z < Z0.05). In the SG, there was a higher microbial load in older children (p < p0.05; Z < Z0.05). No gender differences were found. CONCLUSIONS: The study described and characterized a specific abnormal microbial spectrum with a predominance of viral opportunistic agents in children with ASD associated with GFCD.

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of equine herpesvirus type-1/-4 in selected districts of Northwest Amhara, Ethiopia.

This study aimed to estimate the prevalence, determine the distribution, and identify the epidemiological risk factors of EHV-1/-4 infections in selected districts of Northwest Amhara Region. 460 serum samples were collected from equines using multistage cluster sampling technique, and a competitive Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) was performed. Various risk factors for the occurrence of EHV-1/-4 were considered. Statistical analysis was performed using R version 4.3.1. 65.9% (303) equids were tested positive for antibodies against EHV-1/-4. Based on district, the highest prevalence was recorded in Wogera (86.1%), while the lowest was in Debark (47.4%). There was a significant difference (p <0.05; 95% CI: 1.1067993-3.682843) in the prevalence of EHV-1/-4 among species and donkeys are 2.019 times more likely to get an EHV infection than horses. The prevalence of EHV-1/-4 was highest in equids with the age of 3-8 years and lowest in < 3 years, and the difference was statistically significant (p <0.05; 95% CI: 1.9812042-6.771820). Statistically significant variation (p <0.05; 95% CI: 1.1173822-2.684013) was also observed between sex of equids in which females had 1.73 times higher chance to get EHV infection than males. Higher prevalence was found in lactating equids (81.6%), followed by pregnant equids (74.6%), and dry equids (66.4%). Generally, this study indicated a high and wide distribution of EHV-1/-4 infection in the study area, which needs due attention. Devising strategies to prevent and minimize the spread and occurrence of the infection is crucial.

Hyperoside inhibits EHV-8 infection via alleviating oxidative stress and IFN production through activating JNK/Keap1/Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways.

Equine herpesvirus type 8 (EHV-8) causes abortion and respiratory disease in horses and donkeys, leading to serious economic losses in the global equine industry. Currently, there is no effective vaccine or drug against EHV-8 infection, underscoring the need for a novel antiviral drug to prevent EHV-8-induced latent infection and decrease the pathogenicity of this virus. The present study demonstrated that hyperoside can exert antiviral effects against EHV-8 infection in RK-13 (rabbit kidney cells), MDBK (Madin-Darby bovine kidney), and NBL-6 cells (E. Derm cells). Mechanistic investigations revealed that hyperoside induces heme oxygenase-1 expression by activating the c-Jun N-terminal kinase/nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 axis, alleviating oxidative stress and triggering a downstream antiviral interferon response. Accordingly, hyperoside inhibits EHV-8 infection. Meanwhile, hyperoside can also mitigate EHV-8-induced injury in the lungs of infected mice. These results indicate that hyperoside may serve as a novel antiviral agent against EHV-8 infection.IMPORTANCEHyperoside has been reported to suppress viral infections, including herpesvirus, hepatitis B virus, infectious bronchitis virus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. However, its mechanism of action against equine herpesvirus type 8 (EHV-8) is currently unknown. Here, we demonstrated that hyperoside significantly inhibits EHV-8 adsorption and internalization in susceptible cells. This process induces HO-1 expression via c-Jun N-terminal kinase/nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 axis activation, alleviating oxidative stress and triggering an antiviral interferon response. These findings indicate that hyperoside could be very effective as a drug against EHV-8.

Mutagenesis and functional analysis of the varicella-zoster virus portal protein.

Herpesviruses replicate by cleaving concatemeric dsDNA into single genomic units that are packaged through an oligomeric portal present in preformed procapsids. In contrast to what is known about phage portal proteins, details concerning herpesvirus portal structure and function are not as well understood. A panel of 65 Varicella-Zoster virus (VZV) recombinant portal proteins with five amino acid in-frame insertions were generated by random transposon mutagenesis of the VZV portal gene, ORF54. Subsequently, 65 VZVLUC recombinant viruses (TNs) were generated via recombineering. Insertions were mapped to predicted portal domains (clip, wing, stem, wall, crown, and ß-hairpin tunnel-loop) and recombinant viruses were characterized for plaque morphology, replication kinetics, pORF54 expression, and classified based on replication in non-complementing (ARPE19) or complementing (ARPE54C50) cell lines. The N- and C-termini were tolerant to insertion mutagenesis, as were certain clip sub-domains. The majority of mutants mapping to the wing, wall, ß-hairpin tunnel loop, and stem domains were lethal. Elimination of the predicted ORF54 start codon revealed that the first 40 amino acids of the N-terminus were not required for viral replication. Stop codon insertions in the C-terminus showed that the last 100 amino acids were not required for viral replication. Lastly, a putative protease cleavage site was identified in the C-terminus of pORF54. Cleavage was likely orchestrated by a viral protease; however, processing was not required for DNA encapsidation and viral replication. The panel of recombinants should prove valuable in future studies to dissect mammalian portal structure and function.IMPORTANCEThough nucleoside analogs and a live-attenuated vaccine are currently available to treat some human herpesvirus family members, alternate methods of combating herpesvirus infection could include blocking viral replication at the DNA encapsidation stage. The approval of Letermovir provided proof of concept regarding the use of encapsidation inhibitors to treat herpesvirus infections in the clinic. We propose that small-molecule compounds could be employed to interrupt portal oligomerization, assembly into the capsid vertex, or affect portal function/dynamics. Targeting portal at any of these steps would result in disruption of viral DNA packaging and a decrease or absence of mature infectious herpesvirus particles. The oligomeric portals of herpesviruses are structurally conserved, and therefore, it may be possible to find a single compound capable of targeting portals from one or more of the herpesvirus subfamilies. Drug candidates from such a series would be effective against viruses resistant to the currently available antivirals.

Use of Home-Based Self-Collected Dried Blood Spots to Test for Syphilis, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Hepatitis C and B Virus Infections and Measuring Creatinine Concentration.

INTRODUCTION: Home-based self-collected dried blood spot (DBS) sampling could simplify sexual health and preexposure prophylaxis care and reduce sexually transmitted infections (STIs) clinic visits for men who have sex with men (MSM). We compared the performance of DBS to venipuncture collected blood samples to test four STIs and creatinine concentration. METHODS: We invited MSM clients of the Amsterdam STI clinic to participate. Routinely collected peripheral blood was tested for syphilis treponemal antibody, HIV (HIV Ag/Ab), HCV (antibodies), HBV (HBsAg) and creatinine concentration. Participants received a home kit for DBS sampling, a return envelope and a questionnaire to evaluate the acceptability, feasibility and usability of DBS, measured on 5-point Likert scales, 1 representing complete disagreement and 5 complete agreement. We assessed sensitivity and specificity of DBS versus peripheral blood-based testing. RESULTS: In 2020 to 2021, we included 410 participants; 211 (51.5%) returned a completed DBS card, 117 (28.5%) returned a partially filled card and 82 (20.0%) did not return a card. The sensitivity for syphilis was 90.8% and the specificity 84.3%. For both HIV Ag/Ab and HBsAg, the sensitivity and specificity were 100.0%. The sensitivity for HCV antibody was 80.0%, and the specificity was 99.2%. The DBS creatinine concentration was a mean of 5.3 µmol/L higher than in venipuncture obtained plasma. Participants' median willingness to take a future DBS was 4 (interquartile range, 3-5). DISCUSSION: Dried blood spot may be an acceptable method among MSM for STI testing and creatinine follow-up during preexposure prophylaxis use. However, collecting enough blood on DBS cards was a challenge, and sensitivities for syphilis and HCV serology were too low.

Simian varicella virus infection and reactivation in rhesus macaques trigger cytokine and Aß40/42 alterations in serum and cerebrospinal fluid.

Simian varicella virus (SVV) produces peripheral inflammatory responses during varicella (primary infection) and zoster (reactivation) in rhesus macaques (RM). However, it is unclear if peripheral measures are accurate proxies for central nervous system (CNS) responses. Thus, we analyzed cytokine and Aß42/Aß40 changes in paired serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during the course of infection. During varicella and zoster, every RM had variable changes in serum and CSF cytokine and Aß42/Aß40 levels compared to pre-inoculation levels. Overall, peripheral infection appears to affect CNS cytokine and Aß42/Aß40 levels independent of serum responses, suggesting that peripheral disease may contribute to CNS disease.

First molecular confirmation of cyprinid herpesvirus 1 (CyHV1) in diseased carp in Serbia.

Mass mortality of farmed 1 yr old common carp Cyprinus carpio occurred at a carp farm in April 2022. In addition to high mortality, diseased fish exhibited papillomatous growths on the skin and fins, characteristic of carp pox. To investigate a possible viral cause, tissue samples were collected and nucleic acid was extracted using standard procedures. In a pooled sample from the gills and kidneys, carp edema virus (CEV) was detected by real-time PCR. In a skin tissue sample with papillomatous growths, cyprinid herpesvirus 1 (CyHV1) was detected by a conventional PCR targeting a conserved region of the DNA polymerase of cyprinid herpesviruses. PCR products were visualized through agarose gel electrophoresis, and the presence of CyHV1 DNA was confirmed by Sanger sequencing. This represents the first molecular confirmation of CyHV1 in common carp in Serbia.

SELECTED INSTANCES OF ELEPHANT ENDOTHELIOTROPIC HERPESVIRUS SHEDDING IN TRUNK SECRETIONS BY AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (LOXODONTA AFRICANA) IN COMPARISON TO SHEDDING BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

This study examined the viral shedding kinetics of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) compared to viral shedding behavior in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Little is known about the transmission dynamics and epidemiology of this disease in African elephants. In light of recent clinical cases and mortalities, this paper aims to identify trends in viral biology. Trunk wash samples were collected from 22 African elephants from four North American zoological institutions that had recently experienced herd viremias or translocations. Processing of these samples included DNA extraction followed by qPCR to quantitate viral DNA load. The results were then compared with available literature that chronicled similar cases in Asian and African elephants. Minimal EEHV shedding was detected in response to varied herd translocations. Increased shedding was recorded in herds in which an elephant experienced an EEHV viremia when compared to baseline shedding. These index infections were followed by subsequent viremias in other elephants, although it is not known if these were recrudescence, transient controlled viremias, and/or primary infections via transmission to other elephants. When compared to historically published data, it was observed that EEHV3 cases in African elephants and EEHV1A cases in Asian elephants had consistently higher levels of viral DNA in the blood than were shed in trunk secretions, a fact that is seemingly inconsistent with such severe cases of disease and the high mortality rates associated with those respective types. The findings produced in this study highlight the need for more routine monitoring of viral shedding in African elephant herds to elucidate possible EEHV transmission and recrudescence factors for ex situ population management.

FIRST DETECTION OF CLINICAL DISEASE DUE TO ELEPHANT ENDOTHELIOTROPIC HERPESVIRUS 7A IN TWO AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (LOXODONTA AFRICANA) IN HUMAN CARE.

Multiple species of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) have caused fatal hemorrhagic disease in African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants. To date, EEHV7 has been detected only in benign pulmonary and skin nodules and in saliva of African elephants and has not been associated with clinical illness. Low-level viremia due to EEHV7A was detected via qPCR in two subadult African elephants during routine surveillance. Hematologic changes were noted in both elephants, including leukopenia, lymphopenia, monocytopenia, and band heterophilia. Treatment was initiated with famciclovir, antimicrobials, and rectal fluids, and one elephant received plasma transfusions due to a progressive decrease in platelet count. Both elephants remained asymptomatic throughout the viremias, with rapid resolution of hematologic abnormalities. These cases add to the current understanding of the epidemiology of EEHV in African elephants; to the authors' knowledge, they represent the first documentation of clinical disease due to EEHV7 infection in any elephant.

Tegument protein UL3 of bovine herpesvirus 1 suppresses antiviral IFN-I signaling by targeting STING for autophagic degradation.

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) is a highly contagious pathogen which causes infectious bovine rhinotracheitis in cattle worldwide. Although it has the ability to evade the host's antiviral innate immune response and establish persistent latent infections, the mechanisms are not fully understood, especially the function of the tegument protein to escape innate immunity and participate in viral replication. In this study, we showed that overexpression of tegument protein UL3 facilitates BoHV-1 replication and suppresses the expression of type-I interferon (IFN-I) and IFN-stimulated genes. Then, STING was identified as the target by which UL3 inhibits the IFN-I signaling pathway, and STING was degraded through the UL3-induced autophagy pathway. Furthermore, overexpression of UL3 promotes the expression of the autophagy-related protein ATG101, thereby inducing autophagy. Further study showed that UL3 enhances the interaction between ATG101 and STING, and then the degradation of STING was reversed following ATG101 silencing in UL3-overexpressing cells during BoHV-1 infection. Our research results demonstrate a novel function of UL3 in regulating host's antiviral response and provide a potential mechanism for BoHV-1 immune evasion.